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错配修复基因甲基化紊乱与消化系肿瘤
http://www.100md.com 2004年4月15日 《世界华人消化杂志》 2004年第4期
     孙丹凤,房静远,上海第二医科大学附属仁济医院 上海市 200001

    项目负责人:房静远,200001, 上海市山东中路145号,上海市消化疾病研究所. jingyuanfang@yahoo.com

    电话:021-63200874 传真:021-63266027

    收稿日期:2003-06-27 接受日期:2003-08-16

    摘要肿瘤的发生过程中,表型遗传修饰对肿瘤相关基因的表达起调控作用,主要有总基因组甲基化水平降低,癌基因的低甲基化和抑癌基因的高甲基化及抑癌基因的低乙酰化.其中,DNA错配修复基因的失活与基因的甲基化紊乱密切相关.hMLH1(human Mut L homologue 1 )和hMSH2(humanMut S homologue 2 )是DNA错配修复的主要控制基因,其表达的失活与该启动子区高甲基化有关.本文就消化系肿瘤发生中错配修复与甲基化紊乱关系作一综述.

    孙丹凤,房静远. 错配修复基因甲基化紊乱与消化系肿瘤.世界华人消化杂志 2004;12(4):965-968

    0 引言消化系统肿瘤的发生与很多因素有关,其中作为抑制肿瘤发生的DNA错配修复基因的失活存在于很多肿瘤中,主要为hMLH1基因.该基因失活可产生微卫星不稳定现象,多项研究发现其失活与启动子区高甲基化有关.甲基化可使基因表达下调,在真核生物中参与多种重要生物学功能.错配修复基因的甲基化在肿瘤发生过程中起重要作用,经甲基化抑制剂处理后该基因可重新表达,从而恢复对DNA的错配修复功能.

    1 错配修复错配修复(mismatchrepair,MMR) 是细胞纠正复制错误的重要手段,常出现在增生过程中以维持基因的精确性.hMLH1和hMSH2是主要的DNA错配修复控制基因.MLH1和MSH2基因蛋白产物的功能是识别和修复错配的DNA.hMLH 1或hMSH2基因完全失活时,不能对转换和颠换突变进行识别和修复,因而激活肿瘤基因或使某些抑癌基因失活,最终可导致细胞死亡或肿瘤形成.肿瘤形成时MMR缺失的细胞突变率提高1000倍,这可由微卫星不稳定(microsatelliteinstability,MSI)分析获知.所谓MSI是指由于MMR突变功能异常,造成DNA频发复制错误,导致细胞的微卫星DNA序列发生改变,表现为微卫星片段长度增加或减少.

    2 DNA甲基化DNA甲基化是脊椎动物DNA惟一的自然化学修饰方式,由DNA甲基化转移酶(DNAmethyltransferase,DNMT)介导,将胞嘧啶转变为5-甲基胞嘧啶的一种反应,主要发生在胞嘧啶-鸟嘌呤的CpG二核苷酸中的胞嘧啶碱基上.真核生物中,DNA甲基化修饰的生物学功能有重要意义,包括在转录水平抑制基因的表达、参与真核生物胚胎发育调节、参与基因组印迹和X染色体失活及与细胞分化、增生有关.通常将CpG丰富的区域称为CpG岛,多种基因的启动子和第1外显子富含CpG岛.在正常组织中,散在的CpG通常是甲基化的,而CpG岛则为非甲基化.在肿瘤发生过程中,该模式发生逆转,包括总基因组甲基化水平降低、癌基因的低甲基化和抑癌基因的高甲基化.抑癌基因的高度广泛甲基化使DNA发生转录抑制,抑癌基因的不能表达参与了肿瘤的发生.近来又发现与肿瘤发生密切相关的错配修复基因亦存在这一现象.甲基化酶抑制剂5-aza及其衍生物5-aza-dC可逆转这一反应而使甲基化水平降低.

    3 hMLH 1和hMSH2的甲基化调控hMLH 1和hMSH2在生理状况下表达丰富的蛋白产物以维持基因的精确性,当其发生突变、缺失或其他改变时,则影响其正常表达,出现错配修复功能障碍,与肿瘤的发生有关[1].许多研究证实 hMLH1启动子甲基化在MSI阳性肿瘤中很常见,该甲基化阻断hMLH1的转录.Deng et al [2] 在研究伴MSI的散发性结直肠癌时,在hMLH 1启动子区鉴定出一个CCAAT盒,发现在其上游2个碱基对处的一个CpG位点甲基化可抑制转录因子CBF与CCAAT盒的结合,认为这是导致结肠癌中hMLH 1基因失活的原因之一.有学者[3]分析了hMLH1启动子区CpG岛甲基化模式,发现启动子特殊区域的甲基化程度在hMLH1基因失活中起重要作用,而其更上游区域及第1外显子起始区的甲基化状态与基因失活无必然联系.这些发现都表明hMLH1基因的失活与其启动子某些特殊区域的甲基化有关.另外,Deng etal [4]还证实,在表达正常水平hMLH1的17个结直肠细胞系和54例结直肠肿瘤中分别有4个细胞系和16例肿瘤存在hMLH1位点的杂合性缺失(lossof heterozygosity,LOH),而在所有表达非正常水平hMLH1的9个细胞系和9例肿瘤中均未发现这一现象.强烈提示杂合性缺失并不常与hMLH1基因的失活有关.一项研究[5]检测了100例原发性胃癌患者,发现hMLH1甲基化的发生频率与年龄增长呈正相关,并提出hMLH1甲基化在老年人群胃癌发生中有重要作用.

    有关hMSH2甲基化研究的报道相对较少,除个别研究认为甲基化调控其基因表达[6]外,多数实验显示其在结直肠癌[7]和胃癌[8-10]等发生中与该基因失活关系不明显.相反,该基因的甲基化与内分泌肿瘤[11]、肺癌[12]和乳腺癌[13]等的该基因失活有关.

    4 错配修复基因甲基化紊乱与微卫星异常

    4.1胃癌
胃癌与其他人类散发性肿瘤相比有较高的MSI.Shin et al [14]在研究 hMLH1、hMSH2的遗传状态与表达水平及MSI的关系时,观察了11种人类胃癌细胞系.发现仅3种伴有hMLH1、hMSH2遗传学改变的细胞系有MSI.3种含野生型基因的细胞系,尽管并无MSI,其hMLH1、hMSH2表达明显下降.由此可见,相对低水平的 hMLH1、hMSH2表达仍可维持微卫星稳定(microsatellitestable,MSS). 该研究认为MSI仅与错配修复基因的遗传改变有关.为研究 hMLH1启动子高甲基化在伴MSI多发性胃癌的形成中所起的作用,Junget al [9]分析了来自15个患者的33例多发性胃癌.发现所有高频MSI(high-frequency MSI,MSI-H)缺乏hMLH 1的表达而仍有hMSH 2表达,无MSI或低频MSI(lower-frequency MSI,MSI-L)者则均有这2种基因的表达而所有不表达hMLH 1者均存在该基因高甲基化状态.Fang et al [15]及其他不少学者[16-19]也发现伴MSI-H的胃癌其hMLH1甲基化程度明显高于MSI-L或MSS者.而早期胃癌中的MSI现象及由高甲基化所致的hMLH1失活则较胃腺瘤更常见[20-21].散发性胃癌中约有15%MSI-H. Kang et al [10]研究了hMLH1 和hMSH2启动子甲基化与其基因表达在散发性胃癌中的相互关系,以及这2个错配修复基因与复制错误(replicationerror,RER)的关系.发现hMLH1表达缺失仅存在于RER阳性组,95%RER阳性肿瘤有hMLH1高甲基化. 不管RER阳性或阴性,所有肿瘤均无hMSH2启动子甲基化,并都表达hMSH2. 提示在MSI-H散发性胃癌中,hMLH1启动子区甲基化可能是基因失活的主要机制[22].一项研究[23]发现8例家族性胃癌(FGC)中有6例MSI,4例MSI显示hMLH 1表达紊乱,且此4例MSI均有hMLH 1启动子甲基化.与此相反,有 hMLH1表达的胃癌则未发现该启动子区甲基化.近来研究表明,早期乳头状型胃腺癌较其他形态学类型的胃癌有更高及更广泛的MSI-H,并指出由启动子甲基化导致的hMLH1表达静默是引起乳头状胃腺癌错配修复功能失活的原因所在,且是其形成过程中的一个早期事件[24].有学者提出hMLH1启动子高甲基化是小凹型胃癌发展中一个起始的较重要因素[25],而肠型胃癌启动子区的高甲基化较恶性弥漫型更常见[26].Sakata et al [27]观察了17例单发性胃癌和13例多发性胃癌以及邻近和远离这些肿瘤的正常组织.发现所有MSI-H肿瘤存在hMLH 1启动子甲基化,并与hMLH 1蛋白表达相关.而且伴MSI-H的单发性和多发性胃癌的邻近正常组织有同样高水平的hMLH 1启动子甲基化.提示MSI-H胃癌正常黏膜组织的hMLH 1启动子高甲基化可增加其向肿瘤发展的危险性.Baek et al [8]检测86例胃腺瘤hMLH 1和hMSH 2的表达,发现87%MSI阳性腺瘤hMLH1表达缺失或减少,而所有这些腺瘤都存在hMLH1启动子甲基化. MSI阴性腺瘤hMLH1表达失活仅占4%.hMSH 2基因则在大多数腺瘤中有大量表达,而与MSI状态无关.提示由启动子甲基化所致的 hMLH1表达失活是MSI阳性胃腺瘤的一个早期事件,并可能是其起源.尽管大多数伴MSI的散发性胃癌与hMLH1高甲基化有关,却仍有一部分胃癌虽有hMLH1高甲基化而不表现为MSI.有学者[28]就此现象进行研究,将hMLH1启动子区由远及近分成3个区域,各自分析他们的高甲基化与MSI之间的联系.最终发现hMLH1启动子近端区域的高甲基化在伴有MSI的胃癌形成过程中起重要作用.Kang et al [29]亦发现靠近hMLH1启动子转录近端某个特定小区域的甲基化往往与肿瘤的MSI阳性有关.鉴于MSI与胃癌的密切关系,MSI很可能为将来胃癌的诊断及分类提供一种很好的分子生物学手段[30].

    4.2 结直肠癌 当前结直肠肿瘤形成模式以APC基因突变作为起始事件,其他如凋亡相关基因、DNA错配修复基因等的异常则为结直肠癌发生的早期阶段奠定基础.这些基因的失活常和启动子区高甲基化有关.研究证明DNA甲基化在肿瘤发展过程中起潜在媒介作用.结直肠癌中,DNA错配修复基因的失活与MSI有关.许多研究发现大多数伴MSI的散发性结直肠癌有hMLH 1启动子甲基化,且该甲基化常与hMLH 1表达缺失有关.伴MSI的结直肠癌其高甲基化可通过去甲基化逆转而重新表达hMLH 1,并使MMR缺失的细胞系恢复MMR功能. 由此提出散发性结直肠癌的MMR是由hMLH 1的表型遗传修饰即甲基化而失活.10-15%的散发性结直肠癌及大多数遗传性非息肉性结直肠癌(hereditarynonpolyposis colorectal cancer,HNPCC)伴有MSI-H,其中HNPCC的错配修复基因失活常由突变引起,而散发性结直肠癌的基因失活则如前所述与甲基化有关[31-33].因此对MSI-H肿瘤甲基化及基因突变的分析可作为HNPCC筛选的一种有效手段[34].虽然免疫组化技术亦能鉴定错配修复基因的突变情况,但他不能取代对MSI的检测分析[35].另外,血清学基础上的甲基化分析也可作为发现和监控MSI结直肠癌的一种手段[36].Young et al [37]将按照Bethesda标准规定的112例MSI-H家族性结直肠癌和57例MSI-H散发性结直肠癌相比较,发现散发性肿瘤的MSI较HNPCC更为广泛.在hMLH 1表达缺失的肿瘤中分别有87%的散发性肿瘤和55%的HNPCC有hMLH1甲基化.Miyakura et al [38]在研究88例散发性结直肠癌时,88.9%的MSI-H结直肠癌有hMLH1启动子甲基化,其中又有89%为完全甲基化并伴有hMLH1蛋白表达减少.在部分甲基化的病例中,仅hMLH1启动子上游区域出现甲基化.在MSI-H的正常黏膜中亦有33.3%为部分甲基化.因此认为hMLH1启动子上游区域甲基化可能是MSI-H肿瘤发生过程中的一个早期事件[39].另外他们还提出,甲基化的频率和女性[40-41]及年龄增长密切相关.有学者提出一些右半结肠的增生性息肉可增加MSI散发性结直肠癌发生的概率,肿瘤细胞亚群的hMLH1 启动子甲基化在肿瘤发展过程中起决定性作用[42].15-25%的散发性结直肠癌有复制错误 (RER)现象. 研究表明大多数(70%)RER阳性肿瘤细胞系突变表现型是由hMLH 1启动子甲基化引起的,而与杂合性缺失无关[43].Cunningham et al [44]研究257例非选择性的结直肠癌患者,其中88%的hMLH 1阴性患者及所有MSI-H者有hMLH 1启动子甲基化而未检测到hMLH 1突变.部分由炎症性肠病(infla-mmatorybowel disease,IBD)所致的肿瘤亦有MSI特征,研究发现他们与hMLH 1启动子甲基化密切相关,尤其在MSI-H中. 同时 hMLH1甲基化及MSI又与hMLH 1表达减少明显相关.因此,现认为 hMLH1甲基化导致至少一种IBD肿瘤亚型的DNAMMR缺失[45].研究表明,由MMR缺失所致的结直肠癌对抗多种化疗药物,包括5-氟尿嘧啶(5-FU).体外试验显示,5-aza-dC诱导的去甲基化反应可使MLH1蛋白重新表达,进而克服对5-FU的抵抗,这将为今后肿瘤化疗方案的完善提供帮助[46].Plumb et al [47]的研究也支持这一观点.值得注意的是,近来有学者[48]提出MSI反而可逆转由DNA甲基化所致的结直肠癌不良预后,其机制尚有待进一步研究.

    4.3 肝细胞癌 迄今为止,尚未明确MSI在肝癌发生过程中的作用.一项研究[49]对36例肝癌的hMLH 1和hMSH2进行免疫组化分析,显示所有肿瘤均染色阳性.并对微卫星标记物BAT26进行检测,结果无一肿瘤在该位点表现MSI.这些发现提示MMR缺失在肝癌发生过程中无明显影响[50].Kondo et al [51]研究来自40例患者的非癌组织及癌组织基因组DNA,非癌组织的LOH、MSI、DNA甲基化分别占38%、15%和83%,而癌组织此3类现象分别占98%、20%和100%.未检测到由甲基化引起的 hMLH1基因静默,这一现象与肝癌低MSI相一致.由此可见,肝癌发生、发展中,LOH及DNA甲基化紊乱起着关键作用,而与甲基化引起的hMLH 1基因静默无关.

    总之,在肿瘤发生过程中,错配修复基因hMLH 1启动子区的高甲基化使该基因表达沉默,导致细胞DNAMMR功能障碍,以致胃癌和结直肠癌的发生.甲基化酶抑制剂可逆转这一现象的事实,可能为今后肿瘤的治疗提供一种新的思路.

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