A global health equity agenda for the G8 summit
1 Globalisation and Health Equity Research Program, Institute of Population Health, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada,2 People's Health Movement—India, New Delhi 110 017, India
The G8 summit in July could be used to enable developing countries to meet the millennium development goals. What should world leaders commit to
Introduction
Substantial reversals of the global trend in improvements in health of the past 150 years are now evident in large parts of the developing world, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.w1 In addition to its intrinsic value as a human right,1 health is an important contributor to economic development.2 w2 This creates a compelling case for investing in health, especially since several cost effective interventions are available that can produce rapid and broadly shared improvements in health.3 w3
, http://www.100md.com
The international community is committed to the millennium development goals, most of which are closely related to health status or determinants of health. However, much of the developing world will not meet those goals by the designated date of 2015 unless the industrialised world makes major long term commitments to provide new resources.4 Because the G8 countries account for roughly half the world's economic activity and dominate the decision making processes of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund, appropriate commitment at the 2005 UK summit could turn the page on decades of neglect and fatal indifference.5
, 百拇医药
Health systems and health research
Developmental aid for health totalled $8.1bn (￡4.4bn, 6.3bn) in 2002, the most recent year for which figures are available.6 This is a fraction of estimated minimum needs: $27bn by 2007, $38bn by 2015.2 Of critical importance is support to curb the spread of communicable diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. The G8 must provide a timetable for increasing their financial support for the Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, which has announced a fifth grant competition while acknowledging that it may lack resources for any new projects.
, http://www.100md.com
At the same time, the G8 must ensure that disease specific programmes do not undermine the sustainability of national health systems.7 Key measures here include directing more money to supporting health systemsw4; making multiyear commitments to end the uncertainty that surrounds donor driven programmes3; pooling donor resources within countries; and adding a percentage allowance for budget support to cover costs of implementing new disease specific programmes.8
, 百拇医药 Migration of health professionals from sub-Saharan Africa, which already needs one million more health workers,9 and from other developing regions is a special concern. Since G8 countries benefit most from this migration, the 2005 summit should begin negotiations on the multilateral agreement on migration of health professionals called for by the New Partnership for Africa's Development health plan.10
The logic of global markets means funding for health research continues to be concentrated on diseases of the wealthy.11 The 2005 summit should therefore produce a timetable of new sustained commitments for research into diseases affecting poor people, such as the Global HIV Vaccine Enterprise. The summit should also specify mechanisms to ensure the affordability and availability of any vaccines, essential medicines, and diagnostic tools developed as a result of such research, as well as commit to ensuring availability and reduced prices of treatments that promote public health.
, 百拇医药
Socioeconomic determinants of health
Development policies and aid need to reflect the importance of the key social determinants of health: education; nutrition and food safety; and water, sanitation, and housing. G8 support for all of these areas has been inadequate and often compromised by an insistence on cost recovery and other market oriented policies that undermine health equity.5 Larger donations and multiyear commitments from donors are required in all of these sectors if low income countries are to achieve the millennium development goals.3 4
, 百拇医药
A comprehensive strategy for increased aid should be developed in the context of a clear timetable for G7 countries to attain the longstanding United Nations target of allocating 0.7% of their gross national income to developmental aid. France has made a firm commitment to reach this target by 2012; the United Kingdom has made a soft promise to do so by 2013. The performance of several other European countries shows that achieving this goal consistently is possible (fig 1). A generic commitment by the G7 to match this performance should be accompanied by a separate commitment to doubling present development aid to Africa within three years. The UK's proposed international finance facility (which would float bonds based on pledged increases) can achieve this, but only if all donor countries commit to a timetable to reach the 0.7% target. Questions remain about the pattern of aid after 2015 under the proposal, and about the logic of paying hundreds of millions of dollars in interest to bond investors rather than channelling these resources directly to meeting basic needs.12 New forms of global taxation are also an attractive option, although agreement on these would be politically difficult to achieve in the short term. Taxation could be used alone or alongside the international finance facility.12
, 百拇医药
Crucially, development aid must not be encumbered by conditions that undermine equity—for example, placing ceilings on health and education expenditures or requiring cost recovery in the form of user fees. Donors should require no more than fiscal transparency, accountability, and targeting of resources at basic needs. The fiscal constraints that governments invoke to justify their slowness in responding to global health needs must be assessed in the context of (for instance) world military expenditures, recent tax cuts in the United States and other G8 countries, and the trivial cost for the G7 of meeting the 0.7% target (fig 2).
, http://www.100md.com
Debt cancellation
For almost two decades, the external debt burden of many developing countries has been recognised as a barrier to development and to meeting basic human needs.13 w10 Payments to service debts dwarf development aid in most developing regions.14 Although the Enhanced Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative led by the G8 has enabled some countries to increase public spending on education and health, it provides too little debt relief, too late, and for too few countries.12 In addition, debt relief comes with conditions under the rubric of poverty reduction that closely resemble earlier structural adjustment requirements.15 w10 w11 For example, loans from the World Bank and International Monetary Fund have often been tied to liberalising imports, leading to the destruction of local agriculture or small industry.5
, 百拇医药
Action to improve health in developing countries is affordable
Credit: HARTMUT SCHWARZBACH/STILL PICTURES
G7 countries must commit new money from national treasuries to expanded debt cancellation without reducing money given to aid development and with special consideration of the effect the attached conditions have on equity. Eligibility for debt cancellation must extend to all countries whose debt obligations interfere with public provision for basic needs; sustainable debt levels must be defined by working back from the level of public investment required to meet the millennium development goals, rather than with reference to exaggerated estimates of future export earnings.16
, 百拇医药
Recent proposals to write off much of the debt of the world's poorest countries by selling International Monetary Fund gold reserves should be supported. However, measures will also be needed to compensate developing countries for at least part of the resulting downward pressure on the price of gold. The UK's unilateral pledge to pay back its proportional share of the debts owed to the World and African Development Banks should be followed by all other G8 nations. The G7 finance ministers' commitment in February 2005 "to provide as much as 100 per cent multilateral debt relief" for the 27 heavily indebted poor countries17 is another positive step; it should be strengthened to refer explicitly to debt cancellation and extended to other countries by the time G8 leaders meet in July.
, http://www.100md.com
Finally, the G8 must intensify efforts to close offshore tax havens. The tax avoidance opportunities they provide undermine the fiscal capacity of governments throughout the world and contribute to debt crises by enabling the elite in developing countries to protect their wealth while socialising the costs of debt repayment.5
Fairer trade
The G8 have consistently adhered to a statement made at the end of the 2001 Genoa summit: "Drawing the poorest countries into the global economy is the surest way to address their fundamental aspirations."18 Lack of rapid progress toward the millennium development goals shows that such integration may not improve health equity because of the asymmetric nature of global markets.19 In particular, current trade rules prevent low and middle income countries from using policies to protect domestic markets and enterprises, such as favouring domestic firms in procurement and limiting intellectual property protection, that rich countries used at earlier stages of their own development.20 Continued barriers to exports of agricultural products from low income countries are a special problem. Tariffs and huge producer subsidies, equivalent to several times the annual value of development aid,21 depress world market prices beyond the competitive ability of otherwise efficient producers, such as African cotton growers.w12
, http://www.100md.com
Although export driven growth is far from a panacea, the G8 must make firm and transparent commitments to improve market access, unilaterally and through the European Union and World Trade Organization. The G8 must also ensure that its commitment to strengthen provisions for special and differential treatment, historically a key mechanism for levelling the economic playing field, does not become a way of further subordinating the interests of developing countries within the multilateral trading system.12 Another important step is to ensure that developing countries can actually use the health related exemptions to harmonised intellectual property protection, which will improve access to essential medicines.22
, 百拇医药
Rights based approach to health and development
The tsunami in December 2004 underscored the arbitrariness of life and death in the face of large scale natural disaster. The annual toll from easily preventable disease and injury in the developing world represents a disaster on a far larger scale, one to which people are similarly vulnerable based solely on accidents of birth. An unprecedented consensus now exists in the development policy and international health communities about what needs to be done to achieve widely shared improvements in population health and about the relatively modest cost of the necessary policies and interventions.3 w3
, 百拇医药
Unfortunately, more than a whiff of paternalism and celebrity photo-opportunism is associated with the newly heightened rhetoric of global obligation. An approach to health and development that emphasises human rights1 15 w13 offers a compelling alternative to leaving the global market place to meet basic needs. Recognising that the need is not for charity, but for justice,w13 the G8 must build on recent encouraging responses to the crisis in development and health3 4 and move toward explicit endorsement of a rights based approach, backed up by firm long term commitments to the redistribution of resources across national borders.
, 百拇医药
Summary points
Health is a human right and an essential investment for economic development
Interventions to reverse declining health in developing countries are readily available and affordable.
G7 cancellation of African debt and doubling of development aid is essential
Support for fairer trade rules that strengthen special and differential treatment for African nations is also needed
, http://www.100md.com
The cost to G7 countries of these policy reforms is trivial
References w1-13 are on bmj.com
This article is based on the Nuffield Trust report, The G8, Africa and global health: a platform for global health equity for the 2005 summit,12 which was launched on 28 February 2005 (www.nuffieldtrust.org.uk/globalhealth/index.php).
Contributors and sources: RL, TS, and ASG are among the contributors to Global Health Watch, a civil society world health report (www.ghwatch.org). RL and TS cowrote the first drafts of this article. ASG contributed to the final draft. RL is guarantor.
, 百拇医药
Competing interests: RL and TS have received research grants from the International Development Research Centre and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research to study G8 health and development commitments. They also received financial support for preparation of the Nuffield Trust report. RL has received honorariums for speeches on this topic.
References
Hunt P. Economic, social and cultural rights: the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, report of the special rapporteur. New York: UN Economic and Social Council, 2003. (Document E/CN.4/2003/58). http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/mainec.aspx http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G03/109/79/PDF/G0310979.pdfOpenElement (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
, 百拇医药
Commission on Macroeconomics and Health. Macroeconomics and health: investing in health for economic development. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2001.
United Nations Millennium Project. Investing in development: a practical plan to achieve the millennium development goals. London: Earthscan, 2005. http://unmp.forumone.com/eng_full_report/TF1mainreportComplete-highres.pdf (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
Sachs JD, McArthur JW, Schmidt-Traub G, Kruk M, Bahadur C, Faye M, et al. Ending Africa's poverty trap. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 2004;(1): 117-240.
, 百拇医药
Labonte R, Schrecker T, Sanders D, Meeus W. Fatal indifference: the G8, Africa and global health. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, 2004.
Michaud C. Development assistance for health (DAH): recent trends and resource allocation. Paper prepared for second consultation, Commission on Macroeconomics and Health, October 29-30, 2003. www.who.int/entity/macrohealth/events/health_for_poor/en/dah_trends_nov10.pdf (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
, 百拇医药
Radelet S. Aid effectiveness and the millennium development goals. Washington, DC: Center for Global Development, 2004. (Working paper No 39.)
Lister G, Ingram A, Prowle M. Country case study: UK financing of international cooperation for health. New York: Office of Development Studies, UN Development Programme, 2004. www.nuffieldtrust.org.uk/policy_themes/docs/undp7.pdf (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
Chen L, Evans T, Anand S, Boufford J, Brown H, Chowdhury M, et al. Human resources for health: overcoming the crisis. Lancet 2004;364: 1984-90.
, 百拇医药
New Partnership for Africa's Development. Health strategy. NEPAD Secretariat, 2002. www.afro.who.int/dsd/nepad_health_strategy.pdf (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
Global Forum for Health Research. The 10/90 report on health research, 2003-2004. Geneva: GFHR, 2004.
Labonte R, Schrecker T. The G8, Africa and global health: a platform for global health equity for the 2005 summit. London, Nuffield Trust, 2005.
, 百拇医药
Cheru F. Report of the independent expert on the effects of structural adjustment policies on the full enjoyment of human rights. New York: United Nations Economic and Social Council, 1999. (Document E/CN.4/1999/50.) http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G99/110/09/PDF/G9911009.pdfOpenElement (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
Pettifor A, Greenhill R. Debt relief and the millennium development goals. New York: United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report Office, 2002.
, 百拇医药
Cheru F. The highly indebted poor countries initiative: a human rights assessment of the poverty reduction strategy papers. New York: United Nations Economic and Social Council, 2001. (Document E/CN.4/2001/56.) http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G01/101/84/PDF/G0110184.pdfOpenElement (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
Hanlon J. How much debt must be cancelled J Int Develop 2000;12: 877-901.
G8 Information Centre. G7 finance ministers' conclusions on development, London, 5 February, 2005. www.g8.utoronto.ca/finance/fm050205_dev.htm (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
, http://www.100md.com
G8 Information Centre. Final communiqué. Genoa, July 22, 2001. http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/summit/2001genoa/finalcommunique.html (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
Birdsall N. A stormy day on an open field: asymmetry and convergence in the global economy. In Gruen D, O'Brien T, Lawson J, eds. Globalisation, living standards and inequality: recent progress and continuing challenges. Proceedings of a conference held in Sydney, 27-28 May 2002. Canberra, Reserve Bank of Australia, 2002: 37-65.
, 百拇医药
Chang H-J. Kicking away the ladder: development strategy in historical perspective. London, Anthem Press, 2002.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Agricultural policies in OECD countries at a glance. Paris: OECD, 2004.
Jawara F, Kwa E, Sharma S. Behind the scenes at the WTO: the real world of international trade negotiations/lessons of Cancun. 2nd ed. London: Zed Books, 2004., 百拇医药(Ronald Labonte, Ted Schre)
The G8 summit in July could be used to enable developing countries to meet the millennium development goals. What should world leaders commit to
Introduction
Substantial reversals of the global trend in improvements in health of the past 150 years are now evident in large parts of the developing world, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.w1 In addition to its intrinsic value as a human right,1 health is an important contributor to economic development.2 w2 This creates a compelling case for investing in health, especially since several cost effective interventions are available that can produce rapid and broadly shared improvements in health.3 w3
, http://www.100md.com
The international community is committed to the millennium development goals, most of which are closely related to health status or determinants of health. However, much of the developing world will not meet those goals by the designated date of 2015 unless the industrialised world makes major long term commitments to provide new resources.4 Because the G8 countries account for roughly half the world's economic activity and dominate the decision making processes of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund, appropriate commitment at the 2005 UK summit could turn the page on decades of neglect and fatal indifference.5
, 百拇医药
Health systems and health research
Developmental aid for health totalled $8.1bn (￡4.4bn, 6.3bn) in 2002, the most recent year for which figures are available.6 This is a fraction of estimated minimum needs: $27bn by 2007, $38bn by 2015.2 Of critical importance is support to curb the spread of communicable diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. The G8 must provide a timetable for increasing their financial support for the Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, which has announced a fifth grant competition while acknowledging that it may lack resources for any new projects.
, http://www.100md.com
At the same time, the G8 must ensure that disease specific programmes do not undermine the sustainability of national health systems.7 Key measures here include directing more money to supporting health systemsw4; making multiyear commitments to end the uncertainty that surrounds donor driven programmes3; pooling donor resources within countries; and adding a percentage allowance for budget support to cover costs of implementing new disease specific programmes.8
, 百拇医药 Migration of health professionals from sub-Saharan Africa, which already needs one million more health workers,9 and from other developing regions is a special concern. Since G8 countries benefit most from this migration, the 2005 summit should begin negotiations on the multilateral agreement on migration of health professionals called for by the New Partnership for Africa's Development health plan.10
The logic of global markets means funding for health research continues to be concentrated on diseases of the wealthy.11 The 2005 summit should therefore produce a timetable of new sustained commitments for research into diseases affecting poor people, such as the Global HIV Vaccine Enterprise. The summit should also specify mechanisms to ensure the affordability and availability of any vaccines, essential medicines, and diagnostic tools developed as a result of such research, as well as commit to ensuring availability and reduced prices of treatments that promote public health.
, 百拇医药
Socioeconomic determinants of health
Development policies and aid need to reflect the importance of the key social determinants of health: education; nutrition and food safety; and water, sanitation, and housing. G8 support for all of these areas has been inadequate and often compromised by an insistence on cost recovery and other market oriented policies that undermine health equity.5 Larger donations and multiyear commitments from donors are required in all of these sectors if low income countries are to achieve the millennium development goals.3 4
, 百拇医药
A comprehensive strategy for increased aid should be developed in the context of a clear timetable for G7 countries to attain the longstanding United Nations target of allocating 0.7% of their gross national income to developmental aid. France has made a firm commitment to reach this target by 2012; the United Kingdom has made a soft promise to do so by 2013. The performance of several other European countries shows that achieving this goal consistently is possible (fig 1). A generic commitment by the G7 to match this performance should be accompanied by a separate commitment to doubling present development aid to Africa within three years. The UK's proposed international finance facility (which would float bonds based on pledged increases) can achieve this, but only if all donor countries commit to a timetable to reach the 0.7% target. Questions remain about the pattern of aid after 2015 under the proposal, and about the logic of paying hundreds of millions of dollars in interest to bond investors rather than channelling these resources directly to meeting basic needs.12 New forms of global taxation are also an attractive option, although agreement on these would be politically difficult to achieve in the short term. Taxation could be used alone or alongside the international finance facility.12
, 百拇医药
Crucially, development aid must not be encumbered by conditions that undermine equity—for example, placing ceilings on health and education expenditures or requiring cost recovery in the form of user fees. Donors should require no more than fiscal transparency, accountability, and targeting of resources at basic needs. The fiscal constraints that governments invoke to justify their slowness in responding to global health needs must be assessed in the context of (for instance) world military expenditures, recent tax cuts in the United States and other G8 countries, and the trivial cost for the G7 of meeting the 0.7% target (fig 2).
, http://www.100md.com
Debt cancellation
For almost two decades, the external debt burden of many developing countries has been recognised as a barrier to development and to meeting basic human needs.13 w10 Payments to service debts dwarf development aid in most developing regions.14 Although the Enhanced Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative led by the G8 has enabled some countries to increase public spending on education and health, it provides too little debt relief, too late, and for too few countries.12 In addition, debt relief comes with conditions under the rubric of poverty reduction that closely resemble earlier structural adjustment requirements.15 w10 w11 For example, loans from the World Bank and International Monetary Fund have often been tied to liberalising imports, leading to the destruction of local agriculture or small industry.5
, 百拇医药
Action to improve health in developing countries is affordable
Credit: HARTMUT SCHWARZBACH/STILL PICTURES
G7 countries must commit new money from national treasuries to expanded debt cancellation without reducing money given to aid development and with special consideration of the effect the attached conditions have on equity. Eligibility for debt cancellation must extend to all countries whose debt obligations interfere with public provision for basic needs; sustainable debt levels must be defined by working back from the level of public investment required to meet the millennium development goals, rather than with reference to exaggerated estimates of future export earnings.16
, 百拇医药
Recent proposals to write off much of the debt of the world's poorest countries by selling International Monetary Fund gold reserves should be supported. However, measures will also be needed to compensate developing countries for at least part of the resulting downward pressure on the price of gold. The UK's unilateral pledge to pay back its proportional share of the debts owed to the World and African Development Banks should be followed by all other G8 nations. The G7 finance ministers' commitment in February 2005 "to provide as much as 100 per cent multilateral debt relief" for the 27 heavily indebted poor countries17 is another positive step; it should be strengthened to refer explicitly to debt cancellation and extended to other countries by the time G8 leaders meet in July.
, http://www.100md.com
Finally, the G8 must intensify efforts to close offshore tax havens. The tax avoidance opportunities they provide undermine the fiscal capacity of governments throughout the world and contribute to debt crises by enabling the elite in developing countries to protect their wealth while socialising the costs of debt repayment.5
Fairer trade
The G8 have consistently adhered to a statement made at the end of the 2001 Genoa summit: "Drawing the poorest countries into the global economy is the surest way to address their fundamental aspirations."18 Lack of rapid progress toward the millennium development goals shows that such integration may not improve health equity because of the asymmetric nature of global markets.19 In particular, current trade rules prevent low and middle income countries from using policies to protect domestic markets and enterprises, such as favouring domestic firms in procurement and limiting intellectual property protection, that rich countries used at earlier stages of their own development.20 Continued barriers to exports of agricultural products from low income countries are a special problem. Tariffs and huge producer subsidies, equivalent to several times the annual value of development aid,21 depress world market prices beyond the competitive ability of otherwise efficient producers, such as African cotton growers.w12
, http://www.100md.com
Although export driven growth is far from a panacea, the G8 must make firm and transparent commitments to improve market access, unilaterally and through the European Union and World Trade Organization. The G8 must also ensure that its commitment to strengthen provisions for special and differential treatment, historically a key mechanism for levelling the economic playing field, does not become a way of further subordinating the interests of developing countries within the multilateral trading system.12 Another important step is to ensure that developing countries can actually use the health related exemptions to harmonised intellectual property protection, which will improve access to essential medicines.22
, 百拇医药
Rights based approach to health and development
The tsunami in December 2004 underscored the arbitrariness of life and death in the face of large scale natural disaster. The annual toll from easily preventable disease and injury in the developing world represents a disaster on a far larger scale, one to which people are similarly vulnerable based solely on accidents of birth. An unprecedented consensus now exists in the development policy and international health communities about what needs to be done to achieve widely shared improvements in population health and about the relatively modest cost of the necessary policies and interventions.3 w3
, 百拇医药
Unfortunately, more than a whiff of paternalism and celebrity photo-opportunism is associated with the newly heightened rhetoric of global obligation. An approach to health and development that emphasises human rights1 15 w13 offers a compelling alternative to leaving the global market place to meet basic needs. Recognising that the need is not for charity, but for justice,w13 the G8 must build on recent encouraging responses to the crisis in development and health3 4 and move toward explicit endorsement of a rights based approach, backed up by firm long term commitments to the redistribution of resources across national borders.
, 百拇医药
Summary points
Health is a human right and an essential investment for economic development
Interventions to reverse declining health in developing countries are readily available and affordable.
G7 cancellation of African debt and doubling of development aid is essential
Support for fairer trade rules that strengthen special and differential treatment for African nations is also needed
, http://www.100md.com
The cost to G7 countries of these policy reforms is trivial
References w1-13 are on bmj.com
This article is based on the Nuffield Trust report, The G8, Africa and global health: a platform for global health equity for the 2005 summit,12 which was launched on 28 February 2005 (www.nuffieldtrust.org.uk/globalhealth/index.php).
Contributors and sources: RL, TS, and ASG are among the contributors to Global Health Watch, a civil society world health report (www.ghwatch.org). RL and TS cowrote the first drafts of this article. ASG contributed to the final draft. RL is guarantor.
, 百拇医药
Competing interests: RL and TS have received research grants from the International Development Research Centre and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research to study G8 health and development commitments. They also received financial support for preparation of the Nuffield Trust report. RL has received honorariums for speeches on this topic.
References
Hunt P. Economic, social and cultural rights: the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, report of the special rapporteur. New York: UN Economic and Social Council, 2003. (Document E/CN.4/2003/58). http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/mainec.aspx http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G03/109/79/PDF/G0310979.pdfOpenElement (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
, 百拇医药
Commission on Macroeconomics and Health. Macroeconomics and health: investing in health for economic development. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2001.
United Nations Millennium Project. Investing in development: a practical plan to achieve the millennium development goals. London: Earthscan, 2005. http://unmp.forumone.com/eng_full_report/TF1mainreportComplete-highres.pdf (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
Sachs JD, McArthur JW, Schmidt-Traub G, Kruk M, Bahadur C, Faye M, et al. Ending Africa's poverty trap. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 2004;(1): 117-240.
, 百拇医药
Labonte R, Schrecker T, Sanders D, Meeus W. Fatal indifference: the G8, Africa and global health. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, 2004.
Michaud C. Development assistance for health (DAH): recent trends and resource allocation. Paper prepared for second consultation, Commission on Macroeconomics and Health, October 29-30, 2003. www.who.int/entity/macrohealth/events/health_for_poor/en/dah_trends_nov10.pdf (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
, 百拇医药
Radelet S. Aid effectiveness and the millennium development goals. Washington, DC: Center for Global Development, 2004. (Working paper No 39.)
Lister G, Ingram A, Prowle M. Country case study: UK financing of international cooperation for health. New York: Office of Development Studies, UN Development Programme, 2004. www.nuffieldtrust.org.uk/policy_themes/docs/undp7.pdf (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
Chen L, Evans T, Anand S, Boufford J, Brown H, Chowdhury M, et al. Human resources for health: overcoming the crisis. Lancet 2004;364: 1984-90.
, 百拇医药
New Partnership for Africa's Development. Health strategy. NEPAD Secretariat, 2002. www.afro.who.int/dsd/nepad_health_strategy.pdf (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
Global Forum for Health Research. The 10/90 report on health research, 2003-2004. Geneva: GFHR, 2004.
Labonte R, Schrecker T. The G8, Africa and global health: a platform for global health equity for the 2005 summit. London, Nuffield Trust, 2005.
, 百拇医药
Cheru F. Report of the independent expert on the effects of structural adjustment policies on the full enjoyment of human rights. New York: United Nations Economic and Social Council, 1999. (Document E/CN.4/1999/50.) http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G99/110/09/PDF/G9911009.pdfOpenElement (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
Pettifor A, Greenhill R. Debt relief and the millennium development goals. New York: United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report Office, 2002.
, 百拇医药
Cheru F. The highly indebted poor countries initiative: a human rights assessment of the poverty reduction strategy papers. New York: United Nations Economic and Social Council, 2001. (Document E/CN.4/2001/56.) http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G01/101/84/PDF/G0110184.pdfOpenElement (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
Hanlon J. How much debt must be cancelled J Int Develop 2000;12: 877-901.
G8 Information Centre. G7 finance ministers' conclusions on development, London, 5 February, 2005. www.g8.utoronto.ca/finance/fm050205_dev.htm (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
, http://www.100md.com
G8 Information Centre. Final communiqué. Genoa, July 22, 2001. http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/summit/2001genoa/finalcommunique.html (accessed 10 Feb 2005).
Birdsall N. A stormy day on an open field: asymmetry and convergence in the global economy. In Gruen D, O'Brien T, Lawson J, eds. Globalisation, living standards and inequality: recent progress and continuing challenges. Proceedings of a conference held in Sydney, 27-28 May 2002. Canberra, Reserve Bank of Australia, 2002: 37-65.
, 百拇医药
Chang H-J. Kicking away the ladder: development strategy in historical perspective. London, Anthem Press, 2002.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Agricultural policies in OECD countries at a glance. Paris: OECD, 2004.
Jawara F, Kwa E, Sharma S. Behind the scenes at the WTO: the real world of international trade negotiations/lessons of Cancun. 2nd ed. London: Zed Books, 2004., 百拇医药(Ronald Labonte, Ted Schre)